Lessons from Lemurs: A Madagascar Case Study

Introduction

In my blog, I’ve shared local strategies to live a more sustainable, environmentally-friendly lifestyle. However, oftentimes our consumer choices can have far-reaching impacts across the globe. Consumers often consult ingredient labels for products to determine if they’re right for them, and it is useful to consider where our products originate, whether they impact ecosystems abroad, and how they work with producers in often less-than-ideal conditions[1].

I studied primatology and evolution extensively in my undergraduate education, and was pleased to return to it in my Master’s research. My undergraduate studies focused heavily on the great apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, orangutans, and gorillas) with additional classes examining primate diets, cognition, reproduction, evolution, and conservation. My current research involves Madagascar’s unique lemur populations. They are dispersed across Madagascar’s mainland, having adapted to a variety of unique niches.

Keven Law, 2008, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ringtailed_lemurs.jpg, licensed for personal and commercial free use.

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Lessons from Lemurs: A Madagascar Case Study

Madagascar is the 4th largest island on Earth and also its oldest, located off the coast of southeast Africa to the east of Mozambique[2].

A map of Africa and Madagascar retrieved from Google Maps. The map shows the current location of Madagascar to the east of Mozambique as it relates to the African mainland.

Madagascar and mainland Africa were once a part of Gondwanaland, a tectonic supercontinent comprised of Antarctica, South America, Africa, India, and Australia, which slowly - over the course of millions of years - separated via tectonic drift[3]. Madagascar was still attached to India when it broke off from the mainland supercontinent around 130-165 million years ago and became isolated when India broke off from Madagascar around 88-100 million years ago[4]. The most popular theory for how Madagascar was first populated by African animals suggests they hitched a ride on natural vegetation matts which dropped them off on the island[5].

These animals lived in isolation from human contact until an estimated 1,500-2,000 years ago, when primarily African and Austronesian populations began settling the country, creating the current Malagasy population[6]. Madagascar’s isolation, coupled with the diverse speciation events including vicariance which occurs when geographic barriers separate populations, long-distance dispersal, and the adaptive radiation of species spreading from their point of origin, have led to a high proportion of endemism uniquely adapted to the island’s numerous ecosystems[7].

Paolo Crosetto, 2012, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Avenue_of_the_baobabs_at_sunrise_blue_and_gold_madagascar.jpg, licensed for personal and commercial free use.

Madagascar features several major ecosystem types, including coastal tropical plains, a more rugged, mountainous temperate region at its center, and an arid landscape to its south[8]. These regions host their own unique ecosystems, including dry and deciduous forests in southern Madagascar, rainforests in eastern Madagascar, dry forests in the south and west of Madagascar, and a variety of other ecosystems such as coral reefs, wetlands, grasslands, spiny forests, and other forest types[9]. The forest types range from: evergreen rainforest on the east coast; to grassland, woodland, and bushland mosaic in the center; followed by dry deciduous forest on the west coast; with arid spiny bush on the southern tip of Madagascar; and Sambirano rainforest preceding dry deciduous forest on the northern tip of the island[10].

C. Michael Hogan, 2006, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anjajavyforestrazorback.jpg, licensed for personal and commerical free use.

Cyclones and heavy rainfall pummel Madagascar’s eastern landscape but are halted by its mountainous central region, casting a rainshadow to the west which creates a highly diverse range of ecosystems and uniquely adapted species[11]. Madagascar’s species have adapted to this unpredictable, highly variable climate in isolation for millions of years, with its modern species arriving between 60 to 20 million years ago, and its lemurs between 60 and 50 million years[12].

Today, Madagascar hosts a human population of over 25 million individuals that comprises 18 primary ethnic groups, reflecting its complex history of admixture[13]. Roughly two-thirds of Madagascar’s typical large families have parents 25 years old or younger, with high birth rates contributing to an expanding population[14]. About 80% of this population practices swidden, or tavy, which uses slash-and-burn agriculture that threatens neighboring ecosystems[15]. Poverty, lack of education, malnutrition, and corruption are common in Malagasy communities which sows unrest in the population[16].

Bernard Gagnon, 2007, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Landscape_Madagascar_04.jpg, licensed for personal and professional free use.

Agriculture is Madagascar’s main industry, which includes forestry and fishing, employing over four-fifths of the population with major exports including coffee, vanilla, sugarcane, rice, and other products[17]. Poor agricultural practices can ruin soil quality and take away nutrients while slash-and-burn farming destroys valuable habitats, particularly when farms encroach ecosystem boundaries[18]. Other industries include meat processing, seafood, tourism, textiles, paper, car manufacturing, and mining[19]. These industries place a heavy toll on Madagascar’s ecosystems through practices like deforestation and forest clearing, pasturing, soil erosion, desertification, and pollution.

Madagascar’s black market operates in drugs, sex trafficking, servitude, money laundering, and the illegal pet trade which continue to burden the Malagasy population[20]. Poverty, corruption, and weak governance have facilitated habitat destruction and failed to regulate the illegal species trade, with as much as 90% of primary forests in Madagascar having been lost as a result of these activities[21]. Fortunately, organizations like the United Nations Industrial Development Organization are stepping in to help make these industries sustainable, alleviating poverty while ensuring environmentally sound practices[22].

Madagascar’s varied ecosystems provide valuable environmental services for the country. These services are often left out of economic wealth assessments for nations yet play critical roles in their various economic sectors[23]. For instance, the Ankeniheny-Zahamena Corridor protected area found on the east side of Madagascar hosts a population of 350,000 people who rely on subsistence agriculture, cash crops, and other illegal ventures for money which destroys the habitat for thousands of plants as well as numerous lemurs, birds, and amphibians[24]. Studies show that natural water sources impact various economic sectors in this area, contributing close to $1 billion in combined industries[25].

This shows just a fraction of ecosystem contributions in this protected area, failing to consider: how these ecosystems sequester carbon from the atmosphere and slow climate change, how species draw in tourism, how species help forests reproduce and spread through seed dispersal, how subsistence farmers rely on natural vegetation for sustenance, how native vegetation provides medicinal benefits, how soils contribute to the farming sector, and how Madagascar’s ecosystems are home to:

“approximately 12,000 species of vascular plants (96% endemic), 586 species of ferns (45% endemic), 194 species of palms (97% endemic), 1000 species of orchids (85% endemic), 389 species of reptiles (90% endemic), 278 species of amphibians (100% endemic), 282 species of birds (37% endemic), 159 species of fish (66% endemic), 104 species and subspecies of lemurs (100% endemic), 60 species of non-flying small mammals (92% endemic), 43 species of bats (73% endemic) and 13 species of carnivore (77% endemic)”[26].

Notably, all of these species rely on access to fresh drinking water, a resource that is scarce in its drier regions and limited surrounding rainfall and cyclone events.

The United Nation’s environmental branch shares mechanisms implemented to slow the loss of species and habitats in this unique biological hotspot. For instance, the National Strategy for Sustainable Management of Biodiversity is involved with local populations and executes strategies to reduce poverty, improve living conditions, and protect biodiversity by integrating sustainable practices into communities[27]. This program has led to an increase in the prevalence of protected areas across the country, protecting valuable species and resources. It is accompanied by the National Environmental Action Plan which requires sustainable development and management of resources including developing protected spaces, the Making Investments Compatible with the Environment Decree which utilizes Environmental Impact Analysis to evaluate proposed actions, the Environmental Management and Social Safeguard Plan which requires businesses to invest in protected areas to offset environmental costs, and the National Silo for Forest Seeds which protects Madagascar’s genetic diversity in cool storage areas[28]. As a result, habitat loss has been decreasing since the 1990s[29].

Madagascar’s 100+ lemur species are endemic to the country and provide a unique glimpse into evolution and adaptation to a highly varied landscape. They are found all around the island and have been able to thrive in its various ecosystems. Some examples include: the Lac Alaotra gentle lemur found in east Madagascar in its largest lake, the only primate adapted to live in papyrus or reed beds found above a water source; the crowned lemur (and 7 others) found in northern Madagascar Ankarana National Park’s tsingy ecosystem, consisting of jagged, vertical, seemingly uninhabitable limestone pillars; the aye-aye found in eastern and northwestern Madagascar, a strange nocturnal lemur and the only primate with persistently growing incisors and a long middle finger used to obtain food, looking rather squirrel-like from its relatives; and perhaps the most famous lemur of all, the ring-tailed lemur, found in south and southwest Madagascar as well as in the Andringitra mountains in the southeast[30]. This wealth of primate families is paralleled by the Neotropics or the entire Asian continent, yet is found in a miniscule fraction of their size, further restricted to only 10% of Madagascar’s entire landmass[31]. These species are only found in Madagascar and are all threatened by human activity, reducing habitat availability and threatening individuals through hunting and the illegal pet trade.

Frank Vassen, 2008, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aye-aye_at_night_in_the_wild_in_Madagascar.jpg, licensed for personal and professional free use.

Madagascar’s lemurs provide valuable ecosystem services. Ring-tailed lemurs help spread seeds as they defecate, while also raising interest, awareness, and engagement in their county as a flagship species[32]. The aye-aye similarly assists in seed dispersal through frugivory and pollinate by rubbing on plants as they navigate through trees while hunting larvae from wood-boring beetles which harm forests[33]. In fact, a majority of lemurs assist in seed dispersal in some manner, with a study of three separate lemur species consuming and dispersing seeds from Cryptocarya trees showing dispersal was non-random, fertilizing seeds with droppings in locations with access to sunlight away from the canopy of the host tree[34]. As in many ecosystems, the native flora and fauna have coevolved to benefit one another in some way, allowing both to prosper. Lemurs also act as a form of prey for some of Madagascar’s natural predators, including the fossa and the harrier hawk, increasingly relying on them for food as Madagascar’s habitats continue to shrink, impacting available food sources for all species[35]. It was only after humans were introduced to this pristine ecosystem that things began to change.

Susan Shepard, 2009, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fossa_profile.jpg, licensed for personal and commercial free use.

Humans today have a tendency to unsustainably exploit ecosystems until regulations are put into place and enforced to stop these practices. However, local populations who’ve been living with these ecosystems for thousands of years, uninfluenced by globalization, may often harvest resources sustainably through their own traditional practices. Further, some cultures respect and even revere their surrounding ecosystems and species as a result of traditional, religious, or other widely-held beliefs. In Madagascar, the fight to escape poverty often leads to the unsustainable resource extraction. Foreign investment and collaboration has led to sustainable businesses that extract and utilize resources responsibly.

Take vanilla, for instance. It is a major organic export from Madagascar, accounting for 80% of global distribution, yet it is operated by thousands of small farms, making traceability and transparency of the product and agricultural practices difficult[36]. The Givaudan company first engaged Henri Fraise Fils in 2010, a long-lived and reputable vanilla-bean exporter, to develop a strategy to make this industry more sustainable[37]. In exchange for sustainably producing and exporting this product, participating villages received funding and support for boosting local rice agriculture, a staple of the Malagasy diet, as well as for education through school development, furnishing, and staff training, and finally through the promotion of alternative revenue streams to help these communities escape poverty[38].

Barry Callebaut/Prova Vanilla & Cocoa Project Madagascar, 2006, https://www.flickr.com/photos/barrycallebautgroup/29673638542, licensed for personal free use.

Nestlé recognized this effort in 2013 and honored it with a Responsible Sourcing Prize in 2013, committing to provide additional funding to this movement in the future[39]. The success of this movement also acknowledged the importance of involving the local communities in planning and execution processes, ensuring all voices are heard and all ideas considered[40]. Other similar initiatives by General Mills and Haagen-Dazs or the Unilever-Symrise-GIZ partnership have introduced new ways to re-cultivate fields without using slash-and-burn practices which reduce soil quality and eliminate shade needed for vanilla to grow, recognizing the importance of collaborating with growers to better their living conditions while ensuring the persistence of the crop. This, in turn, protects the habitats which lemurs and other species occupy. Like these invested stakeholders, consumers can support these causes with their hard earned income, selecting the businesses they wish to purchase from as a result of the ethics and practice they represent.

Madagascar is also the source of 80% of global lychee exports, with primary markets in France and Europe[41]. Two major French companies have heavily invested in Madagascar’s lychee market to improve packaging and treatment at processing facilities while also promoting education through animated films[42]. This investment has helped eliminate sulphur residues lingering after lychee product treatment, has helped producers obtain better prices for the product, and has popularized lychees in European market, yet concern remains as climate change threatens stability for this eastern Madagascar crop[43].

Rice agriculture has also benefited from a technique called the System of Rice Intensification which replaces traditional slash-and-burn agriculture with a new low-water, low-fertilizer flooding system[44]. This system helps rice plants develop long, strong roots which lead to greater and healthier plant and grain production[45]. Sustainable agricultural strategies require investment from foreign actors, but their mutual benefits help modernize Madagascar’s economy, assisting its population in escaping poverty while ensuring access to popular crops for the rest of the world. These strategies invariably help species because they focus on strategies which ensure perpetual reuse of agricultural land, reducing the need to encroach on neighboring ecosystems.

Johann Dréo, 2006, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sustainable_development.svg, licensed for personal and commercial free use.

As a consumer, you have the capacity, and perhaps even the responsibility, to learn more about where your products originate, how they’re produced, and how they impact local communities. Certain brands like Nature’s Path promote their investment in Malagasy communities and lemur conservation, promising to contribute 1% of their earnings to conservation projects in Madagascar[46]. The “HowGood” app analyzes all parts of the process to get food from the ground and into your grocery store which provides rankings from good, great, or best to evaluate your food[47]. This is a great first step in helping consumers buy products which align with their standards that they can trust. Other applications like the Cheyenne Mountain Zoo’s Sustainable Palm Oil Shopping or the Monterey Bay Aquarium’s Seafood Watch consumers make the best choices when it comes to buying products and the way it impacts biodiversity[48]. Alternatively, apps like the Human Rights Campaign Foundation Buyer’s Guide help consumers support businesses that respect their LGBTQ employees, listing strategies these businesses employ to meet these goals[49].

Ultimately, with more education and knowledge at their fingertips, conscious consumers like yourself can choose to support businesses that care about their environment, their workers, and the communities involved with their products. It’s an excellent first step to supporting organizations that empower communities and help them escape unsustainable practices. Finally, I hope that you’ve developed a deeper appreciation for how conservation initiatives benefit Madagascar through a better understanding of what makes Madagascar unique, the struggles the Malagasy population faces, and the initiatives working to better Malagasy living conditions while boosting sustainable practices.

As an evolutionary scientist, I know that there is much left to learn from Madagascar’s unique evolutionary sandbox. As a conservationist, I want to ensure that Madagascar’s biodiversity persists against human impacts and population expansion. As a naturalist, I share this writing to connect with my audience and explain my passions surrounding primates, biodiversity, nature, and conservation in general.

I fight to reduce environmental impacts locally by targeting unsustainable waste production and management, but the fight is so much bigger. As part of this wondrous planet we call home, we share a responsibility to protect lifeforms lacking a voice and a platform from which to speak. We are their interpreters, and we want you to know how much your everyday choices matter. Please commit to reducing your own impact around the globe. Be the amplifier conservationists need to spread their message. Have a conversation with friends, colleagues, and family about conservation issues of interest. Begin a dialogue. Be the spark that drives positive change. Together, we can lead the movement to protect our planet’s biodiversity for generations to come.

European Space Agency, 2006, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_virtually_cloudless_image_of_Madagascar_ESA230211.jpg, licensed for personal and commercial free use.

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[1] van der Cloff et al., 2016

[2] Ganzhorn et al., 2006; Guinness World Records, 2018

[3] Yoder & Nowak, 2006

[4] Yoder & Nowak, 2006

[5] Ali & Huber, 2010; Dewar & Richard, 2007; McCall, 1997

[6] Pierron et al., 2017; Razafindrazaka et al., 2010

[7] Ali & Huber, 2010; Ganzhorn et al., 2006

[8] Central Intelligence Agency, 2014

[9] Butler, 2013; Sussman et al., 2003

[10] Dewar & Richard, 2012

[11] Dewar & Richard, 2007

[12] Dewar & Richard, 2007

[13] Central Intelligence Agency, 2018

[14] Central Intelligence Agency, 2014

[15] Kremen, 2011

[16] Central Intelligence Agency, 2014

[17] Central Intelligence Agency, 2018

[18] New Agriculturalist, 2013

[19] Central Intelligence Agency, 2018

[20] Central Intelligence Agency, 2014

[21] New Agriculturalist, 2013

[22] United Nations Industrial Development Organization, 2018

[23] Onfori et al., 2017

[24] Onfori et al., 2017

[25] Onfori et al., 2017

[26] Convention on Biological Diversity, n.d.

[27] Convention on Biological Diversity, n.d.

[28] Convention on Biological Diversity, n.d.; Razafindralambo & Gaylord, 2006

[29] Convention on Biological Diversity, n.d.

[30] BBC, 2018; Duke Lemur Center, n.d.a; Duke Lemur Center, n.d.b; Madacamp.com, 2018

[31] Mittermeier et al., 2008

[32] Baumhofer, 2017

[33] Boucher, 2007; Moomey, 2017

[34] Razafindratsima & Dunham, 2015

[35] Lemur World, n.d.

[36] Givaudan, n.d.

[37] Givaudan, n.d.

[38] Givaudan, n.d.

[39] Givaudan, n.d.

[40] Givaudan, n.d.

[41] Pullman, 2016

[42] Pullman, 2016

[43] Pullman, 2016

[44] Parker, 2017

[45] Parker, 2017

[46] Nature’s Path, 2017

[47] HowGood, 2018

[48] Cheyenne Mountain Zoological Society, 2018; Monterey Bay Aquarium Foundation, 2018

[49] Human Rights Campaign, 2018

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